Essay Six

Casey Petett
Assignment 6

The Europe portrayed Africans as sub-human races that were uncultured and primitive. Europeans, however, viewed themselves as being more advanced than other cultures. The media would present stories that portrayed Africans as violent sexual predators through stories of alleged rape. Scientists also would reinforce these stereotypes using science that proved the European as superior and any other people as being less. Europeans used these portrayals of Africans to ensure the preservation of the purity of their culture, which also made certain that their power would be intact.
The occupation of the Rhineland by African soldiers elicited a strong response from Europeans. Newspaper articles written in various cities criticized the actions of France. White Europeans were civilized, while blacks characterized by “savagery and unbridled passions, appetites, and instincts” (Campt, 52). The articles further warned against miscegenation because Europeans would not simply become uncivilized, but their entire genetic stock would be polluted (Campt, 52). The end of WWI already threatened the status of Germany in Europe, but the use of African soldier further threatened Germany’s power. Germany felt that their position made them the nation that would preserve culture in Europe.
Eugenics and other sciences that were popular in Europe discouraged the intermingling of the different races and encouraged the purity of the white race. These scientists placed Europeans at the top of the racial hierarchy and Africans at the bottom. Africa look uncivilized and primitive compared to Europe (Stone, 95). Europeans from different political parties adhered to Eugenics, which shows how influential the science was (100). In Great Britain, the middle-class especially used eugenics to express their concerns about their own power. The middle-class used eugenics to further distinguish themselves from the lower-class (94). Eugenics was used to reinforce racial stereotypes in order to preserve Europe’s power and purity.
Overall, Europe felt that the presence of Africans would deteriorate the white race. The primitive aspects of the African race would cause the genetic stock of the Europeans to go down. Europeans felt that the stereotypes of the sexually aggressive African would pollute the white culture. Africans were the opposite of how Europeans viewed themselves, which caused fear of miscegenation. Newspapers and science reinforced these views and swayed public opinion against the introduction of foreigners into Europe. Boundaries needed to be established between the two races in order preserve the established racial hierarchy.

Essay 5

The partition of Africa accelerated in the late nineteenth century, but it was actually gradual process that began in the fifteenth century. Europeans faced many obstacles in their attempt to conquer Africa, such as geography, climate, and disease. African resistance was also played an important role in impeding European encroachment. Europe was for the most part content with their position on the coast of the continent. The partition of Africa represents a determined effort by Europe to exploit the continent for their financial and nationalistic goals.

Portugal and Spain first established trading posts on the coast of Africa in the fifteenth century. The conditions of Africa hindered further exploration of the interior by foreign countries (McKenzie, 11). Disease contributed to the vast majority of the problems that Europeans faced. Advancements in medicine in the nineteenth century helped the European nations finally conquer Africa (13). Europe was also able to establish trading routes into the interior of Africa, which allowed the foreign countries to exert influence. The first half of this century was also the era of the explorers. Many explorers were able to penetrate Africa, which lead the way for other countries to follow (13). Europe was finally able to completely partition Africa after hundreds of years of contact.

African resistance also contributed to Europe’s failures in conquering the continent. For example, the great leader Samori Touré kept France from controlling West Africa for seventeen years (Vandervort, 126). Samori was admired by the French for leadership in politics and the military. One of the most important reasons for his success was his ability to unify his people under outside pressure from the French. This prevented the French from gaining power through alliances with other powerful individuals in Africa (129). His military prowess even was able to prolong France’s advancements (128). Samori’s empire was eventually defeated by the French, which completely opened up West Africa. He represents one of the biggest obstacles that the French had to overcome on the continent.
The capabilities of Europe had to catch up with their ambitions before they could finish the partition of Africa. Europe had to overcome disease and African resistance, which took many years to complete. The end of the partition did not take long, which may give the appearance of a spontaneous happening, but this is not true. Europe had to take many years to reach the point were they could finally rule over Africa.

Essay 4

Although total freedom for slaves in Olaudah Equiano’s time was not a possibility, slaves did hope and strive for better living conditions, treatment, and even wages. Some slaves living in England fought to have the status of domestic servants who, although not held in high regard by society, had more freedom and rights than slaves. Slaves fought the most for some sort of wage that would contribute to their maintenance and enhance their rights. They also desired to work under a master who would treat them well, even if their service did fall under the category of slavery. The slaves considered themselves “free” if they were able to work and live under these conditions.

Slaves in England fought to earn wages for the work that they performed for their masters. The receipt from the wage that the slave received implied some sort of contract. At this time, a contract involved the consent of free people, which would imply that the slave was free. Domestic servants often found themselves working under the same conditions of slaves. For example, servants also “faced corporal punishment for disobedience and worked under the close supervision of the master and mistress of the household” (Lorimer, 63). The actions of the servant were severely restricted, which prevented them from being completely free. Slaves would still not be completely free even if they received a wage, but it would constitute a drastic improvement in their lives.

Ouladah Equiano recalled that people who did not own a plantation would loan out their slaves in exchange for money. The money would then be used to provide the slaves with extra subsistence. The food would allow a better standard of living for the slave (Equiano, 91). The money would go directly to the master and not the slave, but it still provided the slave with a sense of self-worth. If the slave did receive some sort of compensation they could buy objects that contributed to their autonomy. Equiano wrote about a man who was able to buy a boat unbeknownst to his master (92). The money earned by slaves represented some autonomy, if not freedom.

Equiano went in depth about the plantations that gave better treatment to the slaves. The slaves still had to work under a master and were not free, but they were able to work and live under better conditions. The plantations perceived as “better” also did not abuse their slaves (97). Equiano would work harder under his master who was kind in order to not be sold to other individuals who were cruel (94). Slaves would be more willing to comply with the orders of their masters if they did not risk being physically punished.

The improvements the slaves received may have been a small victory, but it impacted English society on many levels. Slave owners could not longer view their slaves as property that had absolutely no rights. English society had to accept the domestic status of the slave, which allowed for fewer restrictions, but it still allowed the slave to be freer.

Essay 3

French people helped free Africans who set foot on French soil purely for personal reasons. The French people not associated with the crown used the issue of slavery to criticize royal authority. The majority of the freed slaves won their freedom in Parlement of Paris or the Admiralty Court of France (Peabody, 6). These political institutions used slavery to gain leverage over the monarchy and his council ministers. Before the late eighteenth century, the monarchy could draft legislation without consulting a wide range of people (7). The Enlightenment brought about new ideas of individual freedom, which were adopted by the people in these courts. Their motives in freeing Africans were to challenge the authority of the king and to gain power.

French writers, such as Jean Jacques Rousseau, used slavery as a metaphor for monarchical domination. At the time, Rousseau was not interested with the living conditions of slaves in the French colonies. He is concerned with the “slave, white or black, only as a symbol of political domination” (96). His critique of slavery is motivated by his desire for limited authority of the crown. Voltaire’s was also critical of slavery because he believed that the relationship between the king and his subjects should be contractual (97). Voltaire also believed the different races were “fundamentally distinct” (96). His position enforced the idea that everyone should be free, but not necessarily equal. These writers were more driven by their wish for freedom, which did not always include people of other races.

The majority of the French were motivated by their own desire for freedom, but some lawyers were truly motivated by selfless reasons. The French lawyer, Henrion de Pansey, wrote that “higher ideals could propel lawyers into the service of slaves (103). These few individuals were sympathetic to the slave’s need for freedom. These people believed that the idea of freedom should be applied to everyone. Not all lawyers were motivated by unselfish reasons, however. The other reasons a lawyer could represent a slave were for remuneration or experience (103). The lawyers who fought on the behalf of the slaves certainly constituted a small number.

There were people in France who truly believed in individual rights, but these people did not represent the majority that championed the cause. The majority certainly believed in their freedom, which did not necessarily encompass everybody. These people wanted limitations be placed on the crown in order to ensure their rights.

Essay 2

Different historians believe that the abolitionist movement in Great Britain came from left wing and right wing politics. David Brion Davis wrote that the movement stemmed from new ideas on production associated with industrialization. James Walvin feels that the anti-slavery movement was started by women who at the time were at the fringes of politics. Nicholas Hudson believes that the movement was started by conservatives who preached loyalty to the crown and church. The abolitionist movement can be viewed across the political spectrum due to the wide variety of the people associated with it.
Davis, a liberal, associated the movement with the industrialization of Great Britain. The shift from an agrarian society to an industrial one created a new class of people. The new class of people that arose from this transition made slavery obsolete. The new ideology on labor also led to new ideas on slavery. Entrepreneurs who were not associated with shipping or trade gained status during this time. This new system valued the individual, which was inconsistent with the old idea of slavery. Further progress under this system would lead to the emancipation of slaves (Davis, 23). During this time, the new views of capitalism made slavery seem outdated.
According to Walvin, the abolitionist movement was created by women who were worried about families and women in the slave community. Women in Great Britain were not allowed to directly participate in politics. Through this movement women were allowed to be in the public realm. These women were concerned with the virtue of female slaves and their roles as mother. Slavery did not allow women to truly fulfill their jobs of mothers to their families. Female abolitionist felt it was their duty to end slavery in order to restore slaves to their proper roles in society. The abolitionists did not care about slavery enough to stop using sugar, however (Walvin, 560-561). At the time women in politics was progressive, which falls under left wing politics in the present day.
Hudson views conservative individuals as the ones responsible for bringing the issue of slavery into political debate. The majority of early abolitionists were Anglican and loyal to the church and the king. For example, Samuel Johnson had close ties to the Anglican Church and was fiercely loyal to the king, even though he was viewed as radical by some. He was responsible “for bringing slavery to the stage of legal and political debate during the 1770’s” (Hudson, 561). This people were not on the fringe of society, in fact they mostly represented the status quo. Through their work these conservatives advanced the cause of emancipation in Great Britain.
Slavery gave Great Britain great wealth through the production of sugar. The trade was outdated and prevented the country from future success. The country needed to stop the slave trade in order to flourish under the new system of capitalism. There was also a moral cost as represented by the women abolitionists. The trade prevented slaves from fulfilling their obligations as human beings. The abolitionists represented the entire political spectrum, but everyone viewed the system as one that needed to be stopped.

Essay 1

The majority of Africans that traveled across the Atlantic did so as slaves, but many free black men and women crossed the seas. The black Atlantic encompassed the journeys of a diverse group of black people. Free black men and women who became sailors were awarded different privileges than slaves. The experiences of sailors gave them a positive black identity due to their marginalization in a white society. The black Atlantic was composed of slaves as well as free people who gained certain rights through their journeys to foreign countries.

Olaudah Equianos, a free man, traveled extensively first as a slave and later as a sailor. His travels brought him in constant contact with white people, which influenced his personal identity. His experience with the white culture mixed with his African heritage and created a “hybridized national identity” (Gerzina, 47). He later strongly connected to his black identity due to his involvement with the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Black sailors had certain freedoms that were not granted to white sailors who occupied the bottom ranks of white society. Sailors were also highly valued in the black community due to their access to news information (Gerzina, 48). The experiences of sailors in the black Atlantic gave them prestige in black and white communities, which allowed them to have a positive black identity.

Nancy Gardner Prince’s travels gave her tough qualities that allowed her to enter hostile environments. Her experiences allowed her to have power even though she was marginalized by a white society. Her journeys gave her a sense of spatial ownership, which was evident even on land. An account of her expelling a slave catcher from a home in her community showed the sense of owned space learned from her travels at sea (Gerzin, 51). Her travels gave her power that many black people did not have, especially slaves. The black Atlantic was a source of power for many free black men and women.

The experience of Paul Cuffe in the black Atlantic allowed him to become an influential business leader in the black and white communities. He tried to use trade to connect Africa to Europe and to help relieve the disparity between the two continents (Gerzina, 56). He also devoted himself to social issues on a small scale as well. He created a school in Massachusetts that was open to children of all races. He was even able to conduct business with white people in unsympathetic communities (Gerzina, 53). Cuffe’s travels allowed him to be a leader with considerable influence in different circles.

The travels of the black people allowed them to reconcile their lives as free people with their past experiences as slaves. The black Atlantic gave free people rights not awarded to everyone in the community, which gave them positive black identity. The diverse people who traveled throughout the Atlantic were able to unprecedented freedom for that period of time.

Introduction

Hi, my name is Casey. I plan on teaching social studies in a middle school. It is my second semester in the program and I hope to graduate next spring. Feel free to contact me anytime.